Pyramid Construction in the Old Kingdom

The blog post for this week is written by Jeanne Whitehurst, who has completed her Certificate of Egyptology from the University of Manchester. She moved to Egypt over twelve years ago, just before the revolution. Initially, she lived in Luxor, overlooking Karnak Temple, but now she lives in Aswan overlooking the First Cataract. She was extremely fortunate to have worked with Ted Brock on the sarcophagus of Merenptah (KV 8) as a volunteer. 

The Predynastic Period saw the production of fine pottery and other crafts. Writing had developed from rudimentary basic signs on jars to a hieroglyphic script. Khasekhemwy, the last king of the Second Dynasty and the Early Dynastic Period was probably one of the pharaohs to have united Egypt, his mudbrick and stone inner tomb at Abydos and stone statues together with his military prowess helped to lay the foundations for the achievements of the old Kingdom. The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613–2181 BCE) is also known as the ‘Age of the Pyramids’ or ‘Age of the Pyramid Builders’ as it includes the great Fourth Dynasty when king Sneferu perfected the art of pyramid building, and the pyramids of Giza were constructed under the kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.

How did pyramids develop? During the long reign of Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty, he moved the burial site of kings from Abydos to Saqqara (40 kilometres southwest of Cairo [25 miles]). his architect, Imhotep, designed a mastaba completely constructed of stone, then extended it in three phases to achieve a step pyramid. A mortuary complex consisting of chapels around the base, and a vast courtyard for the king’s festivals were also added (fig. 1). Finally, the whole complex was enclosed by a wall. The next development was at Meidum (“Sneferu Endures”) at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty. This pyramid was designed in the image of the step pyramid by a successor of Imhotep, either constructed for Huni or Sneferu. It has been suggested that it was possibly started by Huni and finished by his son Sneferu, although Sneferu’s sons and other family members are buried nearby. This eight-layered structure is thought to be the first attempt to build a true pyramid, having a burial chamber above ground, and corbelling (arch-shaped) walls. Unfortunately, at some point in time, either during or after construction, it imploded, and its heavy outer layers eventually slid downwards leaving a square three-stepped core.

Fig. 1: The Step Pyramid complex

The next stage of development was a pyramid for king Sneferu at Dahshur, 40 kilometres (25 miles) south of Cairo. The Bent Pyramid (“The Southern Shining One”) possibly began as a much larger pyramid with an angle of about 54 degrees (fig. 2). However, structural problems caused mainly by the unstable sandy ground may have forced the builders to change the angle of the upper half of the pyramid to 43 degrees. To enter this pyramid today, you need to bend double until you get to the antechamber. The pyramid rises majestically to the king’s chamber above, and the brave can mount the five sets of steps, noticing the cedar wood struts across the space. When you breathlessly reach the top, you realise the small cramp chamber could not hold a human burial. The pyramid had now changed from a stairway to heaven to re-creating the primeval mound.

Fig. 2: The Bent Pyramid

The Red Pyramid, (“The Shining One”) situated one kilometre to the north of the Bent Pyramid, owes its modern-day name to the red sandstone that was used to construct its core. This was the perfect angled pyramid of 43 degrees. The angle allowed for a broader base and a more gentle incline, increasing the stability of the structure. Both Dahshur (Sneferu) pyramids were 105 metres (345 feet) in height (fig. 3). To enter this pyramid, you must ascend steps before the longest descent of any pyramid. The first chamber has magnificent cedar corbelled walls, as have the other two, consisting of eleven courses and climbing to a height of approximately 40 feet. The second chamber has similar dimensions to that of the first. It is exceptional in that it is one of the only pyramid chambers to lie directly beneath the centre point or apex of the pyramid. At the southern end, a staircase has been installed to allow access to the final chamber, the entrance for which is located approximately 25 feet above the floor of this second chamber. Both pyramids are well worth a visit, although you do need to be reasonably fit and not put off by the smell of ammonia from the bats!

Fig. 3: The Red Pyramid

The most famous pyramid and the largest is the Great Pyramid (“Horizon of Khufu”), which is the only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World. Originally it would have stood 146 metres high (479 feet) with a base of 230 metres (754 feet), even now with its reduced size and excellent quality Tura limestone from nearby quarries having been robbed over time, the immense size (average 3–4 tons) of the sandstone blocks and excellent workmanship is remarkable (fig. 4). The sides were orientated exactly towards the cardinal points at precisely 90 degrees. You have to admire how the blocks fit perfectly together, even up to the slanted ceiling, with the sarcophagus at the far end of the burial chamber creating an awe-inspiring moment for visitors!

Fig. 4: The Great Pyramid

At least four kings of the Fifth Dynasty moved their burial site to Abusir, which is located midway between Giza (to the north) and Saqqara (to the south). The first king to construct their pyramids here was Sahure, the second ruler of the dynasty (fig. 5). Many of these kings also built sun temples at Abu Ghurab, just slightly to the north. The remaining Fifth Dynasty kings returned to Saqqara for their burials.

Fig. 5: The pyramid of Sahure

The final innovation occurred with the pyramid of Unas, the last king of the Fifth Dynasty. Although the reign of Unas lasted for around thirty years, his pyramid (43 metres high) was the smallest in the Old Kingdom. However, the pyramid is not important for its construction but for the decoration inside. His pyramid was named “The Most Beautiful of Places”, which is very fitting. All the rooms inside the pyramid were built of fine limestone, except for the walls surrounding the sarcophagus where alabaster was used. The false door has an elaborate pattern design representing a reed mat and wood-frame enclosure, which was carved and painted. The ceiling of the burial chamber was painted with golden stars in a dark blue sky. Even more important is the decoration of the remainder of the burial chamber, the antechamber, and part of the horizontal passage that consists of vertical columns of meticulously carved hieroglyphs painted in blue (fig. 6). These columns contain the earliest known example of the so-called Pyramid Texts, the oldest known collection of religious texts known.

Fig. 6: Burial chamber of Unas

One of the chronological problems with the kings of the Old Kingdom is that the Horus and nesu bity (coronation) names are not always found together. Additionally, their position in history on the king lists, including Manetho (the priest whose dates and dynasties are used to date the reign of kings) are often incomplete. Djoser, c. 2670 BCE, was the first king of the Third Dynasty, reigning for over twenty years. Some sources, however, indicate that a king named Sanakht was the first ruler, but this claim is now challenged as Sanakht’s name is only known from two reliefs, the Abydos king list, and the Turin papyrus. His name does, however, appear later in the dynasty while he is also mentioned following Djoser in the Westcar Papyrus, which was written during the Middle Kingdom.

One of the most revered kings of Egyptian history was Djoser, who is also known through his nesu bity name Netjerkhet (“divine of his body”). He moved the capital to Memphis, near modern-day Cairo, and began commissioning his building projects, agricultural development, trade, and a rise in new cities. The stability of the country under Djoser was due in part to his success in securing his borders and then extending them. He became legendary for another reason, the re-building of the temple of Khnum on Elephantine Island in Aswan, which is said to have ended a seven-year famine. The erection of a famine stela, 2,500 after his death on Sehel Island and his name highlighted in red on the Turin Canon helped to elevate his status in Graeco-Roman times (fig. 7).

Fig. 7: The Famine Stela

Another revered ruler of the Old Kingdom was Sneferu. As well as having the first perfect pyramid built for him, his reign was a period of peace and prosperity in which he continuously sent mining campaigns to Sinai to discover and protect copper, gold, and turquoise. From the Palermo Stone record, we know he increased commercial exchange and foreign trade with surrounding countries such as Lebanon, where he sent large fleets of ships to import cedar wood for the manufacture of ships, royal doors, and in his pyramids at Dahshur. Most importantly, he secured the southern borders with Nubia. He was also the first king to have his nesu bity name, Sneferu, (“he of beauty”) to be inserted into a cartouche, a practice that became standard for the remainder of Egyptian history. 

The Sixth Dynasty of Egypt

The blog post for this week is written by Linda Kimmel, from Ann Arbor, Michigan, in the United States. When she retired from full-time work as a data research manager in late 2020, she began studying about the ancient world, and serving as a docent at the University of Michigan’s Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. Linda had never heard of the Egypt Centre before the pandemic but has taken every course offered since she first noticed a tweet about the Centre in the fall of 2020 and has been taking online courses there ever since. She hopes to visit the Egypt Centre in 2024, provided the trains are running!

 

The Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt had it all: assassinations, harem plots, mysterious pharaohs, intrigue, and the longest-reigning monarch in world history. The fourth class in the Egypt Centre’s latest course – The Pyramid Age: Life in the Old Kingdom – covered it all, as we swept through the Sixth Dynasty (approximately 2323–2150 BCE). Honestly, this could be a course all on its own! As a longtime fan of mysteries, this class was perfect. It also made it difficult to pick a topic for this week’s blog! What should I cover?

Fig. 1: Kings of the Sixth Dynasty

The Sixth Dynasty is generally considered the last of the traditional dynasties of the Old Kingdom. During our class, Ken covered the seven rulers of the dynasty (fig. 1). I decided to focus my blog post on Pepi I, the third ruler of the dynasty, looking at how he came to power, and some of the events that happened during his reign. Why did I decide to focus on Pepi I? Because one of my favorite artifacts at the University of Michigan’s Kelsey Museum of Archaeology is a portion of a false door from the Saqqara tomb of Qar (or Kara-Pepy-Nefer), an official under Pepi I (Root, 1982) (fig. 2). I have used the artifact many times in tours to highlight the hieroglyphs, in particular the portion of the text that indicates that Qar was “beloved” of Pepi. Even though I generally point out and describe the cartouche of Pepi I, I had never looked into Pepi I’s story.

Fig. 2: false door from the Saqqara tomb of Qar

Pepi I was the third ruler of the Sixth Dynasty. But should he have been the second? He was the son of Teti (the first ruler of the Sixth Dynasty) and his wife Iput (the daughter of the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, Unas, and Teti’s chief wife). So why did Pepi I not immediately follow his father? That is one of the mysteries of the Sixth Dynasty. Instead of Pepi I, Teti was followed briefly by Userkare. Ken told us that Userkare may be the most elusive of all the kings of the period, and that scholars are still trying to figure out who he was and identify his pyramid. We watched an interesting video in class about the archaeologist Vassil Dobrev’s search for Userkare’s pyramid available on YouTube.

There is some evidence suggesting there was an assassination at the beginning of the Sixth Dynasty. A particularly interesting part of this week’s class was an exploration of the autobiographical inscription of Weni, who served under numerous kings, beginning with Teti. Ken noted that one of the most important parts of the inscription is the mention of a harem plot. It is possible that Userkare was involved in plotting to kill Teti, via his bodyguards. However, Ken cautioned us that there are no Egyptian documents saying Teti was killed. Nevertheless, some speculate that Pepi I may have been the legitimate heir to the throne after Teti died, and that Userkare was a usurper to the throne.

Once in power, Pepi I served a long time (although he was not the longest-reigning monarch). Surviving data mention both a 21st and 25th population count during Pepi I’s reign, which suggests Pepi I may have reigned 50 years if the population counts were done every other year. During his reign, Pepi I faced both internal and external challenges. Internally, it would seem he had to deal with the fallout of his father’s potential assassination. Externally, there is evidence of numerous military campaigns into the Sinai, southern Palestine, and Nubia to the south.

Aside from the challenges, there is also evidence that Pepi I launched trade expeditions into Punt, an as yet unidentified location, believed to be in the area of Eretria. Pepi I was also a prolific builder, building temples at Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Dendera, and Coptos. What I found especially fascinating, is that about 2,000 years after his death, the Ptolemies revered Pepi I, and included his name in reliefs at the Temple of Dendera, with one showing a statue of Pepi I being presented. What was it that made Pepi I stand out for the Ptolemies? Ken said Pepi I may have built a temple to Hathor on the site of the Ptolemaic Temple at Dendera.

It has been suggested that the status of the kings’ wives increased during the Sixth Dynasty, with their funerary temples becoming larger. It has been noted that Pepi I married a large number of women, perhaps between six and eight (Prakash, 2019). We looked at a few of Pepi I’s wives in class, most notably Queen Ankhesenpepi II, his chief wife, whose pyramid contained the first Pyramid Texts attributed to a queen. Was one of these wives involved in a conspiracy?

Fig. 3: Pyramid of Pepi I

One of the many things I love about the Egypt Centre courses is the additional literature on selected topics Ken sends us on a weekly basis, and also mentions during our classes. When we got to the part about palace conspiracies, Ken mentioned a book by Naguib Kanawati, Conspiracies in the Egyptian Palace: Unis to Pepy I. He cautioned us that it was expensive. Fortunately, I was able to get it from my University library and took a deep dive into the conspiracies. Kanawati notes that Weni suggests there was a harem conspiracy during Pepy I’s reign, with one of his queens being brought to trial.

As we have with all of the pharaohs covered in this course, Ken showed us Pepi I’s pyramid. Admittedly, it is not much in comparison to the Fourth Dynasty pyramids at Giza. In the Sixth Dynasty, the emphasis was more on the Pyramid Texts located inside the pyramids than on the height of the pyramid itself. The pyramid of Pepy I is located at South Saqqara. While it was originally 52.5 meters high, today only 12 meters of its original height survive. It was made of poor-quality local sandstone, cased with white limestone (fig. 3).

Fig. 4: Statue of Pepi I (Brooklyn Museum)

Much more impressive were the two statues we saw of Pepi I. The first is a small statue from the Brooklyn Museum (39.121) that depicts Pepi I kneeling and holding nw-pots, which were ritual vessels that held milk or wine (fig. 4). Since kings would only kneel before a god, it is assumed that this statue would have been placed in front of the statue of a deity (Brooklyn Museum). The second are two larger statues found in the area of Hierakonpolis, now on display in the Egyptian museum (fig. 5). These are the largest copper alloy statues found in Egypt from this time.

Fig. 5: Copper alloy statue of Pepi I

This past Friday, I led a tour at the Kelsey Museum and included the false door of Qar. This time, I included a bit of information about Pepy I, which seemed to interest the people in my tour! I look forward to learning more about Pepi I and the other kings we have covered in this course. Thanks to the readings Ken sends us each week, I have a lot of information available.

Bibliography

Brooklyn Museum, Kneeling Statuette of Pepy I,  https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3448

Kanwati, N. (2003). Conspiracies in the Egyptian Palace: Unis to Pepy I. London: Routledge.

Malek, J. (2000). “The Old Kingdom.” In Ian Shaw (Ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 89-117.

Prakash, T. “Egypt in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/oking/hd_oking.htm (February 2019)

Root, M. C. (1982). A Scientist Views the Past: The Samuel A. Goldsmit Collection of Egyptian Antiquities.  https://lsa.umich.edu/content/dam/kelsey-assets/kelsey-publications/pdfs/Scientist_Views_Past.pdf

Celebrating National Volunteers Week

The blog post for this week has been written by Syd Howells, the Volunteer Manager at the Egypt Centre. Without our dedicated volunteers, the Egypt Centre would not be able to function as it does. As we mark National Volunteers Week, it is important to recognise all their hard work!

From the very beginning of the Egypt Centre’s formation, the importance of involving volunteers was recognised (fig. 1). Not only was it a pragmatic move, particularly crucial for a new museum, but it was a great way of involving those outside the University community (historical fact: our first ever volunteer was Wendy Goodridge, now the Museum Manager!). Now, 25 years later, this award-winning scheme (for example, we were awarded the Queens Award for Volunteering in 2018), continues onwards providing opportunities to many.

Fig. 1: Our volunteers with the museum's handling tray

The 1–7th June is National Volunteers Week when volunteers and the incredible efforts they provide are celebrated, and an ideal time to recognise our volunteers and the time and effort they freely give to ensure our continuation. Over the past ten years or so, an Egypt Centre tradition has been established where we buy our volunteers cake to say thank you! If you are one of our volunteers, I can confirm that this tradition continues (fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Cake!

Many of our former volunteers have gone on to careers in the heritage sector, education, etc., or have continued in higher education. Volunteering at the Egypt Centre is an ideal way to gain work experience or boost your CV, and those wishing to enter the following fields may benefit:

·       Most heritage-related careers

·       Youth and social work

·       Teaching/training

·       Academia/research

·       Librarianship

·       Tourism

·       Customer care

·       Retail

 

What do our volunteers do?

Volunteers at the Egypt Centre have three core tasks. These are:

·       Gallery supervision and maintenance (ensuring the galleries are safe and the objects within our collection are secure)

·       Visitor and Customer Care/Interaction (it is essential to be welcoming to visitors)

·       Educational delivery (demonstrating the public activities of mummification, Senet, and the materials handling board to visitors)

 

There are a variety of types of volunteering you can get involved in, all of which will have at least one element of the core functions. The following roles are available:

·       Gallery Assistant (greeting, guiding, and demonstrating activities to visitors)

·       Educational Assistant (assisting in school visits)

·       Shop Assistant (within our gift shop)

·       Admin Assistant/Transcription Volunteer (helping with paperwork, transcribing old documents relating to our collection)

·       Gallery Supervisor (the progression role of a Gallery Assistant. Gallery Supervisors can provide extensive tours around our galleries to visiting groups)

·       Educational Leader (teaching ancient Egyptian-related activities to visiting school groups)

It is important to note that we do not regularly offer any “behind-the-scenes curatorial work” as our infrastructure simply does not allow for it. All roles besides the Admin Assistant/Transcription Volunteers have an element of visitor interaction.

 

Without volunteers, the Egypt Centre simply could not function. We are open Tuesday to Saturday between 10am and 4pm, and while we are a small museum with only two galleries (the House of Life and the House of Death), we do hold the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artefacts in Wales (fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Welcome to the Egypt Centre!

Our volunteers greet visitors, welcoming them, answering enquiries, and giving guided tours.  Besides the roles noted above, many adapt activities already on offer by making props to enhance the activity, such as headdresses, wigs, etc (fig. 4). Volunteers also pilot new activities before they are offered to our visitors and evaluate the activities. There is a genuine family atmosphere at the museum and our adult volunteers are aged from 18 to 85+ with a diverse range of backgrounds and life experiences.

Fig. 4: Dressing up

We also have a small group of distance volunteers who are primarily people living overseas who like to contribute to the Egypt Centre. These volunteers help to translate trails on our online catalogue into English, thereby increasing the potential for engagement. Besides English, there are now trails in Welsh, Arabic, Hungarian, and most recently Spanish!

It should be noted that some days it is very quiet in the museum, while on other days the opposite applies! For example, we host a lot of school visits, not only from Welsh schools, but also some from England who travel down to visit us for the day.

Why should I volunteer at the Egypt Centre?

You can make new friends, learn new skills, gain experience for your CV and for your chosen career, and have the satisfaction of helping run Wales’ only dedicated museum of ancient Egyptian antiquities! We have special, free Egyptology classes for our volunteers (fig. 5), and you can borrow books from our very own library. I also provide references for volunteers and former volunteers applying for jobs.

Fig. 5: Taking part in object handling classes

What type of people are we looking for?

For our adult volunteer scheme, anyone over the age of 18. You will need to be enthusiastic, enjoy working with others, and meeting people from all over the world (fig. 6). An interest in Egypt is not essential, but it helps! We have many volunteers who are retired people, some also work part-time, and some are students. Swansea University student volunteers can take part in the Higher Education Achievement Record (HEAR) awards, where they can achieve bronze, silver, and gold awards, which are recorded on their final degree transcript.

Fig. 6: One of our enthusiastic volunteers

How do I go about volunteering at the Egypt Centre?

The first point of contact is the Museum Volunteer Manager. Drop me a line on l.s.j.howells@swansea.ac.uk and I can answer any questions you may have about volunteering with us. You can download an application form from https://www.egypt.swan.ac.uk/volunteering-and-work-placement/adult-volunteers/ or I can send you one via email. Complete this and return it to me (but please ensure I can read it and that you have provided the email addresses of two referees!)

I will then apply for your references and guide you through the Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) check. The DBS check is essential as we do a lot of work with vulnerable groups at the museum. Once the references are back and the DBS check is completed, I will arrange with you a suitable day and time for your volunteer induction, where we’ll discuss what days and times you are happy to volunteer at the museum (most people volunteer from between 3–17 hours per month). Then, you are one of us!

If you decide to become involved with the Egypt Centre, you will be an addition to our team of wonderful, dedicated volunteers who love bringing ancient Egypt alive to our visitors.

An Update from the Louvre

This blog post has been written by Hugo Rault-Marical, who arrived at Swansea University in January 2022 on a six-month exchange programme from the Université de Lille. Hugo previously wrote a blog post about his experiences in Swansea and provides us with an update on his recent internship at the Louvre.

I spent six months last year at Swansea University as an exchange student specialising in Egyptology. It was such a great opportunity that enabled me to make a first step into museology. In April & May 2023, I had an internship at the Louvre under the supervision of Florence Gombert-Meurice, curator in charge of Egyptian bronzes in the Egyptian Antiquities Department. What I learned during my time abroad in Swansea was so helpful at this time.

Fig. 1: Hugo undertaking a condition report on an Egypt Centre object in 2022

Back in Swansea, I partook in a course taught by Ken Griffin, Carolyn Graves-Brown, and Wendy Goodridge regarding museums, preventive conservation, artefact care, collection history, audiences, and inclusivity (fig. 1). Fortunately, I was also accepted into the Swansea University Pottery Project (SUPP), directed by Christian Knoblauch and Ken, where I was able to handle ancient Egyptian pottery, analyze them, and enter the data into the Egypt Centre’s database: Abaset. These different experiences allowed me to be efficient in my work at the Louvre (fig. 2). I knew how to handle ancient objects with care, how to describe them with the correct vocabulary, and finally how to implement data into the online database. In brief, I had a museology background due to Swansea University’s offerings. Not only in a practical way, but also regarding Egyptian art knowledge: the module coordinated by Christian about art enhanced my perception of Egyptian artefacts. Thanks to it, I am now able to date an object by its features and decoration.

Fig. 2: The gallery where much of Hugo's work at the Louvre took place

Next, I aim to take the curator national exam! Once again, the knowledge offered by Swansea University and its staff will be necessary. I would like to thank again Ken Griffin, Christian Knoblauch, Carolyn Graves-Brown, and Wendy Goodridge for their warm welcome into the Swansea University and Egypt Centre. I won’t forget the first artefacts that I handled at the Egypt Centre. My time at Swansea University was such an enriching experience!

Merging Cultures: Cultural Syncretism in the Ancient World

This blog post has been written by Kian Murphy, an MA student of Ancient History and Classical Culture at Swansea University. As part of the module Reaching the Public: Museums and Object Handling (CL-M77), Kian had the opportunity to curate a display at the Egypt Centre. The theme and objects chosen were made by Kian, who provides an introduction to them in the blog below. This provided a unique opportunity for Kian to gain valuable museum practice and is an excellent student experience. The exhibition will remain on display in the House of Life gallery until September this year.

The new Egypt Centre case that I have curated is focused on the theme of cultural syncretism, which is a term that I am using to describe the process by which two different cultures influence each other. This case also looks at the various ways in which cultural syncretism occurs with a particular focus on Egypt (fig. 1). Of the many ways in which cultures can influence each other, there are several particularly prominent forms of syncretism that would occur within ancient Egypt. The main forms of syncretism include migration, imitation, and assimilation. It goes without saying that these are certainly not the only forms of cultural syncretism, but they are ones that feature within my display.

Fig. 1: Merging Cultures display

The categories I have listed with somewhat poetic names are purposefully vague as trying to create stricter categories would make things unnecessarily confusing. Additionally, these categories can also overlap often. For example, the category of migration mainly focuses on the movement of people from one location to another and the objects they bring with them; this does not mean they have to become permanent residents and can include traders. Of the objects in my display, the mummy label (W551) is a good example of the migration category (fig. 2). Mueller (1973, 175) notes that within the Graeco-Roman Period, the transporting of bodies was not uncommon, especially when one has died away from their homeland. These labels are usually inscribed with Greek or Coptic writing, and some may also work as cheap alternatives to gravestones (Mueller 1973, 176–6). The fact that this type of artefact is relatively unique to the Graeco-Roman Period suggests some degree of influence, probably as a result of Greek-speaking people living or travelling to Egypt and adapting their funerary methods to suit the new environment. In addition, the presence of Coptic writing acts as an example of human movement affecting the language of a culture, in this case Egyptian language adapting to fit the Greek alphabet.

Fig. 2: Mummy label

Cultural syncretism through imitation is usually shown through art or architecture. One of the best examples of this can be seen with Roman burial shrouds. EC38 is a fragment of a burial shroud (fig. 3). Whilst sections of the shroud are missing, the remaining surface has some pretty distinct designs worth noting. Primarily, the style of the shroud is fairly typical of the Roman Period. The feet shown on the shroud have thick linework and long thin toes. At the same time, there are two very noticeable jackals, one of which is holding a cross. At the very least, both Roman and Egyptian art styles and symbolism are depicted on a shroud. It could also be argued that the cross the jackal is holding is invoking Christian imagery in which case we have an interplay of three cultures included upon one shroud. It is worth mentioning that this mixed artistic style appears to be very purposeful. Christina Riggs argues that the funerary style popularised during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods in Egypt was a product of an awareness of the several cultures interacting during this period resulting in artists drawing from several different traditions (2002, 99).

Fig. 3: Roman shroud

The last form of cultural syncretism that I will discuss is what I describe as assimilation. This choice of word provides a somewhat darker image but is actually meant to simply relate to aspects of culture that are a bit less tangible, like religion. When two different religions interact the end result can often be fairly violent, but in other cases the result may be an adoption of traditions, practices, and deities. The Harpakhered figure (EC1982) is a good example of this. Harpakhered is a child deity (literally “Horus the child”) who seems to have embodied morning light (fig. 4). This particular form of Horus was present in Egyptian religion throughout their history, but it was not until the Graeco-Roman Period that his worship grew after being merged with several other gods, including the Roman Hercules (Hall 1977, 55–6). In this case, the act of taking a god of another religion and syncretising him with one of their own shows a form of cultural syncretism that is particularly fascinating. By taking the desirable features of a foreign deity the Romans seemingly enriched their own religion. As mentioned before, these examples are not the only forms of cultural syncretism that exist but they are the most broad. This act of merging cultures was not always a completely conscious one and it was not unique to the Graeco-Roman Period, but it was far more noticeable during this period. In addition, this process is not one that stopped suddenly but instead has been a consistent aspect of cultural change throughout human history. Beyond this, it should be noted that this process is not necessarily a benevolent one; the Roman occupation of Egypt was marked with conflict and mistreatment. One could describe some of these examples as Romans “stealing” culture, a claim that would be problematic but not to be ignored. In truth, trying to apply strict moral boundaries onto the process is ill-advised, but an awareness of cultural syncretism as well as the ways in which it happens can be used to think critically about one’s own identity.

Fig. 4: Figure of Harpakhered

The objects on display in the temporary exhibition, in addition to a few other objects, can be found in this specially designed trail on Merging Cultures.

 

Bibliography

Hall, E. S. (1977) Harpocrates and other child deities in ancient Egyptian sculpture. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 14, 55–58.

Mueller, D. (1973) Three mummy labels in the Swansea Wellcome collection. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 59, 175–180.

Riggs, C. (2002). Facing the dead: recent research on the funerary art of Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. American Journal of Archaeology, 106(1), 85–101.

The Domestic Piety Case

Continuing on from previous blog posts presenting the displays in the House of Life gallery, this week’s entry with focus on the Domestic Piety case. As with the previous cases, this display was created in 1998 for the opening of the Egypt Centre and has remained largely the same ever since. In total, there are seventeen objects on display, including three on long-term loan since 2005 from the British Museum. The idea behind the case is that, as the name suggests, the objects relate to personal piety or religion in the home. While evidence of personal piety existed before the New Kingdom, it is from this period onwards that we see a greater prevalence (Luiselli 2008; 2014). This is particularly the case within the community of workmen at Deir el-Medina, where a few of the objects in this case originate from. This blog post will present some of the objects on display in this case (fig. 1).

Fig. 1: The domestic piety case

One of the objects from Deir el-Medina is a limestone ostracon (W1327). The object was previously part of the collection of Robert de Rustafjaell, which was purchased by Sir Henry Wellcome in 1906. It can be traced back to lot 75, which is described in the auction catalogue as consisting of “three stelae and various fragments”. On the front of the ostracon there is decoration in red ink, which includes a cow in the upper half and four figures in the lower half (fig. 2). While the decoration is somewhat difficult to see, it becomes much clearer when running the image through DStretch (fig. 3). The cow has a sun disc between her horns, which clearly identify her as the goddess Hathor. Hathor is a goddess who is well-known from Deir el-Medina, including within the home. She was associated with music, dance, joy, love, sexuality, and maternal care. The provenance of the item is known from the writing on the reverse of the ostracon, which is commonly found on objects originating from the collection of Rustafjaell. Also on the reverse is a rectangular serrated sticker with the printed number 21. This was added by the Assyriologist William St. Chad Boscawen (1854–1913), who was tasked with cataloguing Wellcome’s Egyptian collection from 1906 until his death in 1913. His catalogue entry for the ostracon describes it as a “sandstone (sic) ostraca with artists design. A cow & male figures in red outline”.

Fig. 2: Ostracon from Deir el-Medina

Fig. 3: DStretch of ostracon

Also from Deir el-Medina is fragment of a Bes vessel (W1702), which was also purchased in 1906 from the Rustafjaell collection (fig. 4). As with the previous object, the writing on the back of the fragment provides the provenance. The face of Bes is created using four shallow horizontal lines for the forehead, with his eyebrows and eyelids formed by arches: five arches on the left and two on the right. The eyes are concave oval shapes, with smaller ovals inside to form the pupils. The nose is triangular, connected to a downcurved arch; the triangle and arch protrude from the surface. The tongue is sticking out under the nose. Fragments of the outline of the face are preserved, created by a thick line, and on the top right an ear is preserved. The ear is a semi-circle attached to the face outline. Such vessels probably contained wine or milk and date to the New Kingdom. Bes was a household protector, becoming responsible for such varied tasks as killing snakes, fighting off evil spirits, watching after children, and aiding women in labour by fighting off evil spirits (Bagh & Manniche 2021).

Fig. 4: Bes vessel

Two other Bes vessels are on display in the case, both of which are complete. W1283 is a small ellipsoid jar made from a fine Marl clay (fig. 5). It is a wheel-made vessel with a ring base and a collar around the transition from the shoulder and the neck. The vessel’s rim has been broken and now has an uneven jagged rim. The vessel has a stylised depiction of the god Bes made of applied decoration that has been carefully sculpted. This example dates to the Ptolemaic Period and comes from the collection of the Reverend William MacGregor, which was sold at auction in 1922. This vessel was affectionally referred to by Kate Bosse-Griffiths as the “humpty dumpty” pot because of its striking resemblance to the character. EC546 likely dates to the Late Period also has an extremely stylised image of the god Bes, with just the eyes applied as decoration.

Fig. 5: Bes vessel

Two further objects in the case feature the popular Bes. British Museum EA2569 is a wooden cosmetic container in the form of a standing figure of the god Bes, shown with leonine features, wearing a wig and short kilt (fig. 6). His arms are slightly bent at the elbow, with hands resting on his thighs. There is a cylindrical hollow drilled down from the top of the head to contain cosmetics. The vessel would have been covered by a lid, which is now missing. A small hole is present where the attachment of the lid once fitted. It was dated by Gay Robins to the period between the reign of Amenhotep III and Tutankhamun (Robins 1995, 22). This object has been on long-term loan at the Egypt Centre since 2005 from the British Museum who acquired it from the collection of Henry Salt in 1821. The other item is a fragment of blue faience showing part of the face of Bes (EC257). This is possibly part of a faience vessel dating to the Late Period.

Fig. 6: Cosmetic vessel of Bes

Just like the Bes vessels discussed previously, Hathor vases were also common. W1284a is part of a pottery vessel showing a cow’s head to represent the goddess Hathor (fig. 7). Such vessels seem to have been used from the Middle Kingdom to contain wine or milk. Festivals of Hathor often contained an element of drunkenness but on many temple estates cows were kept to produce sacred milk. This object was also purchased by Wellcome in 1906 from the collection of Robert de Rustafjaell. W5364 is a small bag-shaped jar that has been wheel-made. There is an incised line that has applied decoration attached, just beneath the rolled rim (outside), which depicts the horns of a cow and sun disc linking it to the goddess Hathor.

Fig. 7: Hathor vessel

AB129 is an object that I have a close fondness for since it was the subject of my first ever article, which was written to mark the occasion of Professor Alan Lloyd’s retirement at Swansea University (Griffin 2007). This limestone fragment is part of an ꜣḫ i͗ḳr n Rꜥ stela (fig. 8). On the left, the dedicatee is seated on a high-backed chair wearing a wig with fillet and a wesekh-collar. He has a short beard and wears a short wig with a fillet band tied around it. The curved end of the top of the chair can be seen just above the collar. In his left hand he holds a lotus-flower, which sinuously curls away from his body with its blossom looping back towards his face, giving the impression that he is sniffing its pleasing fragrance. In his right hand he appears to be holding a bouquet of flowers, the remains of which can be seen just in front of him. Traces of brown and white paint on the surface. In the lunette above the scene is an inscription, written over several vertical lines. The text, which is incomplete, can be tentatively reconstructed based on other examples of this type. It concludes with the name of the dedicatee, which to date remains elusive. Ancestor stelae were common during the Ramesside Period. While most often found at Deir el-Medina, this fragment appears to have come from Abydos. It was gifted to the University of Wales, Aberystwyth by John Bancroft Willans, a subscriber of the Egypt Exploration Fund/Society, who received the object in 1903. It was subsequently gifted to the Egypt Centre in 1997.

Fig. 8: Ancestor stela

All the objects in the Domestic Piety case, including those not discussed in this blog, can be viewed here.

 

Bibliography:

Bagh, Tine and Lise Manniche (eds) 2021. Bes: demon god, protector of Egypt. Contributions by Jørgen Podemann Sørensen, Lise Manniche, Christian E. Loeben, Olaf E. Kaper, Pavel Onderka. [Kopenhagen]: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.

Demarée, R. J. 1983. The ꜣḫ i͗ḳr n Rꜥ-stelae: on ancestor worship in ancient Egypt. Egyptologische Uitgaven 3. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.

Griffin, K. 2007. An ꜣḫ ı͗ḳr n Rꜥ stela from the collection of the Egypt Centre, Swansea. In Schneider, Thomas and Kasia Szpakowska (eds), Egyptian stories: a British Egyptological tribute to Alan B. Lloyd on the occasion of his retirement, 137–147. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.

Luiselli, Maria Michela 2014. Personal piety in ancient Egypt. Religion Compass 8 (4), 105–116.

Luiselli, Michela 2008. Personal piety (modern theories related to). Edited by Jacco Dieleman and Willeke Wendrich. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2008 (July).

Robins, Gay 1995. Reflections of women in the New Kingdom. Ancient Egyptian art from The British Museum, 4 February–14 May 1995. Atlanta: Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University.